US Barley Production At Historic Lows

Traffic-John_Barleycorn_Must_Die_(album_cover)

He’s not dead yet, but he’s looking a bit peaked.

In 1941, the US entered World War II. The following year, in the United States, 17 million acres were planted to barley. At the time, barley was grown as animal feed and for malting. (Malting is the process of turning barley seed into malted barley. Malted barley is the major ingredient in beer and some distilled beverages.) As today, a tiny amount went to human consumption and industrial uses. And of course, some amount of barley grown every year supplies farmers with seed for the next year. As it turns out, after years of increases in barley acreage since the mid 1800s, 1942 was the peak of barley production in the US. 

After 1942, production bounced around before landing at around 8 million acres planted in 1987. From there, the numbers began to slide consistently, with barley acreage losing over 300,000 acres per year. (Numbers from the Nation Barley Growers Association.) Last year, only 2 million acres of barley were planted in the US. In addition, barley stocks — stored grain held in reserve — were at or near historic lows.

Acreage in Montana and Idaho, two major barley growing states, has seen only modest declines in the past two decades. In contrast, Minnesota and North Dakota have seen production fall sharply. The number of bushels produced Minnesota fell by roughly half from 1991 to 2000, then stabilized. From 1991 to 2011, barley production in North Dakota — until recently the top barley-growing state — fell from more than 135 million bushels per year to less than 20 million.

What Happened? 

Through much of the period from 1942 to present, the US was a major exporter of grain. However, our barley exports dwindled and, by 1987, accounted for only a small percentage of the barley being grown. Today, our exports are effectively zero — the result of improved agricultural capabilities in countries we used to export to.

Likewise, the use of barley as animal feed has dwindled to almost nothing. For a brief time in the 1980s, over 300 million bushels per year were sold as feed. In the 1990s, the numbers hovered around 200 million bushels. Today, they are on the order of 50 million bushels per year.

In the past, some barley was grown explicitly to be feed barley. There were specific varieties of feed barley it was fertilized fairly heavily so that its protein content would be high (14% or more). This made it more nutritious to livestock and hence more valuable at market. In contrast, in order to be useful to brewers, malting barley must be of a malting barley variety and of fairly low protein content (below 12%). As such, applications of fertilizer — especially nearing harvest — are light.

BarleyEars

Two-row and 6-row barley. Photo by Xianmin Chang. (Released to public domain.)

In the past, if a farmer’s crop of malting barley did not meet specifications, he could still sell it (at a reduced price) as feed. Today, that would be impossible as very little feed barley is being purchased. In fact, in a recent conversation I had with David Kuske of Briess Malting, I found out that basically all barley grown in the US is grown under contract to maltsters. There is no “spot” market for US barley, so farmers are (understandably) reluctant to grow barley unless they have a guaranteed buyer. (A spot market is a market where commodities are bought and sold from stocks on hand. Essentially no farmers are growing barley and waiting to see what they can get for it at harvest time, which is common for many other crops.)

Barley has always been planted on marginal farm land. The most fertile growing regions in the US — which include the “corn belt” and “wheat belt” running through the American midwest — grow wheat, corn, and soy. Barley is largely planted north of the corn and wheat belts, where growing seasons are shorter and the land is (frequently) less fertile. North Dakota, Montana, Idaho, and Minnesota are the four of the biggest barley producing states of the past several decades. Colorado and Wyoming also have significant acreage. (The American Malting Barley Association website has information on which varieties are planted in which states. Basically, 6-row barley is planted in North Dakota, 2-row elsewhere.)

These days, new varieties of GMO corn and soy beans — crops that command higher prices than barley — can be grown in many regions where they could not before. North Dakota used to be a nearly endless field of barley; now it’s mostly planted to corn. This is due to new corn varieties with shorter growing seasons and increased drought resistance.

In order to ensure that barley is grown for beer production, maltsters must enter into “act of God” contracts with farmers. This means that the maltster agrees to pay a competitive price for the barley, and the farmer gets paid even if his or her barley crop fails (for reasons beyond their control). In regular agricultural contracts, the farmer would need to buy the commodity he was supposed to raise in order to fulfill his contract. For example, if the buyer contracted for 5,000 bushels of wheat at 4 dollars a bushel, the farmer would have to deliver 5,000 bushels to the buyer — even if his crop failed and he had to buy that grain at 5 dollars a bushel on the spot market. However, without a spot market for barley, and with more lucrative crops available to farmers, maltsters have to contract for the barley and allow for the realities of the market.

 

Compensating Factor?

The 1940s was the beginning of what became known as the Green Revolution. Starting at this time, improvements in agricultural practices led to great gains in farm productivity. To pick one example, rice production in India went from 2 tons per hectare (in the 1960s) to 6 tons per hectare (in the 1990s). This caused the price of rice to drop from $550 ton to $200 ton (from the 1970s to 2001, a slightly different time frame). In the 1970s, the idea that the population would outstrip our food-producing capability, leading to a worldwide famine, was considered seriously. Today, thanks to the Green Revolution, obesity is a far greater health concern that famine in industrialized countries.

Unfortunately, barley did not benefit from the Green Revolution to the extent that other major crops did. The USDA reports that in 1942, farms in Montana yielded around 30 bushels per acre. This has increased to around 50 bushels per acre today (and I have seen claims of 60–80 bushels per acre currently for some other growing regions). This is a sizable improvement, but let’s contrast this to corn. When I was a kid in the 1970s, my grandfather grew corn on his farm in Iowa. Back then, Iowa corn farmers were yielding about 70 bushels per acre. Today the number is around 220 bushels per acre. And, although commodity prices vary, the price of corn is usually higher than the price of barley. (Corn prices have fallen recently, however.)

So, although barley farmers are yielding more per acre, this is not offsetting the massive losses in acreage. Nor is the increase in productivity keeping pace with other crops.

In addition, seed manufacturers pay relatively little attention to barley, and that’s likely to continue to be the case. In particular, US maltsters have no interest in agricultural companies developing GMO barley varieties, fearing rejection by consumers. So, the very technology that helped other crops encroach on barley-growing regions won’t be able to help barley find new growing regions.

 

What Does This Mean for Brewers and Beer Lovers?

IMG_1783

Mmmm . . . beer.

For those of us who brew and enjoy beer, is this anything to worry about? Not really. One constant throughout all of this has been the barley used for malting. The amount of barley grown for malting each year hasn’t changed too much in the past few decades. As brewers, it really doesn’t matter to us if feed barley is no longer grown or if exports have declined to zero. What we require is a source of malting barley. Maltsters work closely with growers and have long been aware of the general downward trend in barley acreage. They began contracting before availability became a problem. So, there should never be a “surprise” shortage of malt, as there was in 2008 with hops. (And even that wasn’t a total surprise to those in the know. I heard Ralph Olsen, then of HopUnion, warn that it was coming in the years prior the shortage.)

As Kuske mentioned when I talked to him, maltsters have a pretty good idea of how much demand there will be for malt each year, and they contract with farmers to deliver adequate amounts of barley. To hedge against crop failures, they contract for a little more than their projections require. And, there are still modest amounts of barley stocks available. Kuske also mentioned that Briess has recently purchased a large barley storage and processing facility in Wyoming, to handle 2-row barley grown there and in Montana. So maltsters are — as you would expect — aware of the situation and taking steps to keep the malt flowing.

In a year with a normal amount of crop failures, the beer supply will be fine. In a year in which crop failure is more extensive than predicted, some barley could be imported to make up the deficit. Canada, for example, grows a fair amount of barley. However, in the case of a terrible growing season covering most of the northern part of the United States (and into Canada), the availability of barley could fall below demand.

On balance, unless the US experiences a major weather disturbance that disrupts barley crops from Idaho through Minnesota, brewers will continue to have a supply of barley malt and beer drinkers will have their beer. In the case of a very poor growing season, however, there could be malt shortages as there is no pool of barley for maltsters to draw from if their contracted crops are not delivered. In short, the sky isn’t falling — but out of an abundance of caution, you might want to look up occasionally.

 

Related articles

Use Those Homegrown Hops!

Harvesting Arkansas Cascades

Comments

  1. So easy to forget that our brewing inputs must be grown somewhere by someone. Thanks for an interesting, informative article!

  2. That is a really cool message

  3. I’m speaking from my thick heart

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  7. Yeah
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    Long live the King yo, I’m from the Empire State that’s
    In New York (ayy, ah-ha) (uh, yeah)
    Concrete jungle (yeah) where dreams are made of
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    Now you’re in New York (uh, yeah)
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    These streets will make you feel brand new
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    In New York (ayy, ah-ha) (uh, yeah)
    Concrete jungle where dreams are made of
    There’s nothin’ you can’t do (okay)
    Now you’re in New York (uh, yeah)
    These streets will make you feel brand new
    Big lights will inspire you (okay)
    Let’s hear it for New York (come on)
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    Concrete jungle where dreams are made of
    There’s nothin’ you can’t do (okay)
    Now you’re in New York (uh, yeah)
    These streets will make you feel brand new
    Big lights will inspire you
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    To the place I belong
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    Take me home, (down) country roads
    Take me home, (down) country roads

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  11. In 1941, the US entered World War II. The following year, in the United States, 17 million acres were planted to barley. At the time, barley was grown as animal feed and for malting. (Malting is the process of turning barley seed into malted barley. Malted barley is the major ingredient in beer and some distilled beverages.) As today, a tiny amount went to human consumption and industrial uses. And of course, some amount of barley grown every year supplies farmers with seed for the next year. As it turns out, after years of increases in barley acreage since the mid 1800s, 1942 was the peak of barley production in the US.

    After 1942, production bounced around before landing at around 8 million acres planted in 1987. From there, the numbers began to slide consistently, with barley acreage losing over 300,000 acres per year. (Numbers from the Nation Barley Growers Association.) Last year, only 2 million acres of barley were planted in the US. In addition, barley stocks — stored grain held in reserve — were at or near historic lows.

    Acreage in Montana and Idaho, two major barley growing states, has seen only modest declines in the past two decades. In contrast, Minnesota and North Dakota have seen production fall sharply. The number of bushels produced Minnesota fell by roughly half from 1991 to 2000, then stabilized. From 1991 to 2011, barley production in North Dakota — until recently the top barley-growing state — fell from more than 135 million bushels per year to less than 20 million.

    What Happened?
    Through much of the period from 1942 to present, the US was a major exporter of grain. However, our barley exports dwindled and, by 1987, accounted for only a small percentage of the barley being grown. Today, our exports are effectively zero — the result of improved agricultural capabilities in countries we used to export to.

    Likewise, the use of barley as animal feed has dwindled to almost nothing. For a brief time in the 1980s, over 300 million bushels per year were sold as feed. In the 1990s, the numbers hovered around 200 million bushels. Today, they are on the order of 50 million bushels per year.

    In the past, some barley was grown explicitly to be feed barley. There were specific varieties of feed barley it was fertilized fairly heavily so that its protein content would be high (14% or more). This made it more nutritious to livestock and hence more valuable at market. In contrast, in order to be useful to brewers, malting barley must be of a malting barley variety and of fairly low protein content (below 12%). As such, applications of fertilizer — especially nearing harvest — are light.

    BarleyEars
    Two-row and 6-row barley. Photo by Xianmin Chang. (Released to public domain.)

    In the past, if a farmer’s crop of malting barley did not meet specifications, he could still sell it (at a reduced price) as feed. Today, that would be impossible as very little feed barley is being purchased. In fact, in a recent conversation I had with David Kuske of Briess Malting, I found out that basically all barley grown in the US is grown under contract to maltsters. There is no “spot” market for US barley, so farmers are (understandably) reluctant to grow barley unless they have a guaranteed buyer. (A spot market is a market where commodities are bought and sold from stocks on hand. Essentially no farmers are growing barley and waiting to see what they can get for it at harvest time, which is common for many other crops.)

    Barley has always been planted on marginal farm land. The most fertile growing regions in the US — which include the “corn belt” and “wheat belt” running through the American midwest — grow wheat, corn, and soy. Barley is largely planted north of the corn and wheat belts, where growing seasons are shorter and the land is (frequently) less fertile. North Dakota, Montana, Idaho, and Minnesota are the four of the biggest barley producing states of the past several decades. Colorado and Wyoming also have significant acreage. (The American Malting Barley Association website has information on which varieties are planted in which states. Basically, 6-row barley is planted in North Dakota, 2-row elsewhere.)

    These days, new varieties of GMO corn and soy beans — crops that command higher prices than barley — can be grown in many regions where they could not before. North Dakota used to be a nearly endless field of barley; now it’s mostly planted to corn. This is due to new corn varieties with shorter growing seasons and increased drought resistance.

    In order to ensure that barley is grown for beer production, maltsters must enter into “act of God” contracts with farmers. This means that the maltster agrees to pay a competitive price for the barley, and the farmer gets paid even if his or her barley crop fails (for reasons beyond their control). In regular agricultural contracts, the farmer would need to buy the commodity he was supposed to raise in order to fulfill his contract. For example, if the buyer contracted for 5,000 bushels of wheat at 4 dollars a bushel, the farmer would have to deliver 5,000 bushels to the buyer — even if his crop failed and he had to buy that grain at 5 dollars a bushel on the spot market. However, without a spot market for barley, and with more lucrative crops available to farmers, maltsters have to contract for the barley and allow for the realities of the market.

    Compensating Factor?
    The 1940s was the beginning of what became known as the Green Revolution. Starting at this time, improvements in agricultural practices led to great gains in farm productivity. To pick one example, rice production in India went from 2 tons per hectare (in the 1960s) to 6 tons per hectare (in the 1990s). This caused the price of rice to drop from $550 ton to $200 ton (from the 1970s to 2001, a slightly different time frame). In the 1970s, the idea that the population would outstrip our food-producing capability, leading to a worldwide famine, was considered seriously. Today, thanks to the Green Revolution, obesity is a far greater health concern that famine in industrialized countries.

    Unfortunately, barley did not benefit from the Green Revolution to the extent that other major crops did. The USDA reports that in 1942, farms in Montana yielded around 30 bushels per acre. This has increased to around 50 bushels per acre today (and I have seen claims of 60–80 bushels per acre currently for some other growing regions). This is a sizable improvement, but let’s contrast this to corn. When I was a kid in the 1970s, my grandfather grew corn on his farm in Iowa. Back then, Iowa corn farmers were yielding about 70 bushels per acre. Today the number is around 220 bushels per acre. And, although commodity prices vary, the price of corn is usually higher than the price of barley. (Corn prices have fallen recently, however.)

    So, although barley farmers are yielding more per acre, this is not offsetting the massive losses in acreage. Nor is the increase in productivity keeping pace with other crops.

    In addition, seed manufacturers pay relatively little attention to barley, and that’s likely to continue to be the case. In particular, US maltsters have no interest in agricultural companies developing GMO barley varieties, fearing rejection by consumers. So, the very technology that helped other crops encroach on barley-growing regions won’t be able to help barley find new growing regions.

    What Does This Mean for Brewers and Beer Lovers?
    IMG_1783
    Mmmm . . . beer.

    For those of us who brew and enjoy beer, is this anything to worry about? Not really. One constant throughout all of this has been the barley used for malting. The amount of barley grown for malting each year hasn’t changed too much in the past few decades. As brewers, it really doesn’t matter to us if feed barley is no longer grown or if exports have declined to zero. What we require is a source of malting barley. Maltsters work closely with growers and have long been aware of the general downward trend in barley acreage. They began contracting before availability became a problem. So, there should never be a “surprise” shortage of malt, as there was in 2008 with hops. (And even that wasn’t a total surprise to those in the know. I heard Ralph Olsen, then of HopUnion, warn that it was coming in the years prior the shortage.)

    As Kuske mentioned when I talked to him, maltsters have a pretty good idea of how much demand there will be for malt each year, and they contract with farmers to deliver adequate amounts of barley. To hedge against crop failures, they contract for a little more than their projections require. And, there are still modest amounts of barley stocks available. Kuske also mentioned that Briess has recently purchased a large barley storage and processing facility in Wyoming, to handle 2-row barley grown there and in Montana. So maltsters are — as you would expect — aware of the situation and taking steps to keep the malt flowing.

    In a year with a normal amount of crop failures, the beer supply will be fine. In a year in which crop failure is more extensive than predicted, some barley could be imported to make up the deficit. Canada, for example, grows a fair amount of barley. However, in the case of a terrible growing season covering most of the northern part of the United States (and into Canada), the availability of barley could fall below demand.

    On balance, unless the US experiences a major weather disturbance that disrupts barley crops from Idaho through Minnesota, brewers will continue to have a supply of barley malt and beer drinkers will have their beer. In the case of a very poor growing season, however, there could be malt shortages as there is no pool of barley for maltsters to draw from if their contracted crops are not delivered. In short, the sky isn’t falling — but out of an abundance of caution, you might want to look up occasionally.

    Related articles

    Use Those Homegrown Hops!

    Harvesting Arkansas Cascades

  12. Got a number one victory royale
    Yeah fortnite we bout to get down (get down)
    Ten kills on the board right now
    Just wiped out tomato town
    My friends just go down
    I’ve revived him now we’re heading south bound
    Now we’re in the pleasant park streets
    Look at the map go to the mark sheets

    Take me to your Xbox to play fortnite today
    You can take me to moist mire but not loot lake
    I would really love to, chug with you
    We can be pro fortnite gamers

    He said hey broski
    You got some heals and a shield pot
    I need healing and I am only at one HP
    Hey dude sorry, I found nothing on the safari
    I checked the upstairs of that house but not the underneath yet
    There’s a chest that’s just down there
    The storm is coming fast and you need heals to prepare
    I’ve V-Bucks that I’ll spend
    More than you can contend
    I’m a cool pro fortntie gamer
    Cool pro fortntie ga-

    Take me to your Xbox to play fortnite today
    You can take me to moist mire but not loot lake
    I really love to, chug with you
    We can be pro fortnite gamers

    La la la la la ee a
    La la la la la ee a
    La la la la la ee a
    Yeah you be my pro fortnite gamer
    Pro fortnite gamer

    Can we get a win this weekend
    Take me to loot lake
    Let’s change the game mode and we can disco dominate
    We’ll top an ATK take me to the zone
    I’m running kinda low on mats
    I need to break some stone
    Dressed in all these fancy clothes
    He’s got Renegade Raider
    And he’s probably a pro
    He just shot my back
    I turn back and I attack
    I just got a victory royale
    A victory royale

    Take me to your Xbox to play fortnite today
    You can take me to moist mire but not loot lake
    I really love to, chug with you
    We can be pro fortnite gamers

  13. Hey papi

  14. i feel bad for this mans website

  15. HE must like it!?

  16. I bet hehehehe

  17. burgean is so weird

  18. NO, he’s just really hot.

  19. we know

  20. i like ford and ram and chevy and daddies

  21. Day #3 keep up the good work

  22. if you like a dog u must be a hog your dad is like a log

  23. Fins up bru yuh

  24. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

    We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness.

    Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, all experience has shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed.

    But, when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world.

    He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.

    He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.

    He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature; a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.

    He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.

    He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people.

    He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the state remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.

    He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands.

    He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers.

    He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

    He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.

    He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures.

    He has affected to render the military independent of and superior to the civil power.

    He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation:

    For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us;

    For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states;

    For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world;

    For imposing taxes on us without our consent;

    For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury;

    For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses;

    For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies;

    For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering fundamentally the forms of our governments;

    For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

    He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us.

    He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.

    He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation.

    He has constrained our fellow citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands.

    He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions.

    In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress, in the most humble terms. Our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.

    Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends.

    We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be free and independent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor.

    In Congress, July 4, 1776

    The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America, When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

    We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.–That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, –That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.–Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

    He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.

    He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.

    He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.

    He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.

    He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.

    He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.

    He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.

    He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.

    He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

    He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harrass our people, and eat out their substance.

    He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.

    He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.

    He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:

    For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:

    For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:

    For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:

    For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:

    For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:

    For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences

    For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:

    For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:

    For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

    He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.

    He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.

    He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.

    He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.

    He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.

    In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.

    Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our Brittish brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.

    We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
    THis is a strong

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